Research - The IZEA Model

The IEZA Model

“The model is intended as a conceptual tool for conceptually designing and reflecting upon designing game audio and in this thesis its main function is to provide a coherent vocabulary for the definition and typology of game audio and to provide a conceptual model for understanding the functioning of game audio in relation to immersion”. (Huiberts. S, 2010, p. 12)

Game audio typologies

The classification and typology of audio in games are expressed in a number of ways by practitioners in the study of game audio, each structuring game audio content into meaningful partitions with regards to functionality. Sander Huiberts (2010, pp.15-20) describes some of the different frameworks that have been developed, which can be applied to help structure game audio content. Huiberts also points out some inconsistencies relating to each framework and makes it clear that that the subject of game audio needs a more coherent model. Some of the frameworks discussed by Huiberts are as follows:

·        Production based approach (basic framework consisting of sound types, for example vocal recordings, sound effect files and music files)

·        Game specific approach (sounds are organised into different groups depending on how they are implemented into the game, for example avatar sounds, object sounds, (nonplayer) character sounds, ornamental sounds and instructions.)

·        Approach based on origin of sound within the game environment (This includes the score, effect, interface, zone and speech which makes up the game environment)

·        Approach based on the meaning of sound to the player (categorised into four sections: diegetic sounds, symbolic sounds, masking sounds and non-diegetic sounds)

These approaches are helpful in defining certain aspects of game audio and would be of use at various stages of production but they do not take into consideration the many ways in which game audio can be can be communicated to the player.

Huiberts proposes the IEZA model (Huiberts. S, 2010, pp. 20-35) which looks at and categorizes game audio in way which reflects the communication of audio throughout interactive gameplay. The model is not applicable to non-interactive situations such as cut scenes for example. As it is the interactive part of gameplay that is important for immersion to occur it is beneficial to have a framework which deals with audio in this context.

The IZEA model first of all divides audio into two categories, ‘Diegetic’ and ‘Non-diegetic’, then further divides these up into four domains, ‘Zone’, ‘Effect’, ‘Affect’ and ‘Interface’. ‘Diegetic’ sounds are those which originate from within the game world, sounds like character footsteps, gunfire, and weather and so on. ‘Non-diegetic’ sounds are those which originate from outside the game world such as music or menu navigation sounds. Huiberts also points out that these domains are interdependent on each other which adds another dimension to the model, these are ‘Activity’ which connects ‘Interface’ and ‘Effect’, as well as Setting which connects ‘Zone’ and ‘Effect’. Huiberts identifies these as

“The Activity communicates events occurring in the game environment, while the Setting provides a background or context for the Activity.” (Huiberts. S, 2010, p. 24)

f:1

f:2

Illustration of IZEA Model f:1 and IZEA Model with general design properties; can be found on p25 (f:1) and p32 (f:2) in the following: (Huiberts. S, 2010)

Effect (Part of the diegetic division)

·        Sounds that are perceived as originating from within the game world for example sounds that would be heard by the character.

·        Sounds responsive to the players’ activity within the diegetic world, either by triggering directly or indirectly.

Zone (Part of the diegetic division)

·        Includes sound which is part of the diegetic environment, for example background ambience such as bird calls and wind in a forest setting.

·        Sound which do not interact with the player but add a sense of realism to the game world by providing a backdrop of enveloping sound.

·        “Communicating an ambient, background layer, which forms an auditory setting for the game world” (Huiberts. S, 2010, p. 27).

Interface (Part of the non-diegetic division)

·        Informing sounds which are outside of the game world such as health bar or score feedback, menu interactions

Affect (Part of the non-diegetic division)

·        Sounds which influence mood such as music at key game points to build tension

·        Sounds which are not part of the diegesis but are used to affect the players’ behaviour during gameplay.

Huiberts also highlights two primary roles for audio in games which are then linked into the IZEA model. These include sounds which are used to optimise gameplay and sounds which are used to dynamise gameplay (Huiberts. S, 2010, p. 29). Optimisation utilises audio to inform the player about gameplay (enhancing usability), whereas audio used to dynamise the gameplay would consist of sound to make parts of the game more exciting (enhancing the experience).

f:3

[f:3]These illustrations show how both Optimisation and Dynamisation are represented and prioritised within the IZEA model; can be found on p31 in the following: (Huiberts. S, 2010)

With the research topic of immersion in mind it is key to note that Huiberts makes a connection between optimisation and Dynamisation, and the potential positive impact these factors have on the immersive quality of a games.

Notes:

• Valid model for my research as is linked to immersion
• Good planning tool for conceptual design of game level used alongside the grounded theory of Brown & Cairns (2004)
• Designing specifically with immersion in mind (Can game audio be designed and implemented with the specific purpose of creating an immersive aural experience? Although the visual look of a game is recognised as a key aspect of game immersion, could this be overlooked if audio were to play a more prominent role?)

      References:

Brown, E. and Cairns, P. 2004. A Grounded Investigation of Game Immersion. Extended Abstracts of the 2004 Conference on Human Factors and Computing Systems, Vienna April 24-29 2004. New York: ACM. pp. 1297-1300. [online]. Available from: http://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/~pcairns/papers/Immersion.pdf [Accessed 1st November 2014]

Huiberts, S. 2010. Captivating Sound, The Role of Audio for Immersion in Computer Games. [online]. Available from: http://download.captivatingsound.com/Sander_Huiberts_CaptivatingSound.pdf [Accessed 20 October 2014].

Game Level Concept - Game review (Amnesia - The Dark Descent)

This is a short review of the game Amnesia - The Dark Descent in relation to the honours project.
Of interest due to its reliance on audio to to enhance user experience.

Even before the game begins the developers have tried to set the scene and put the player in a specific mind set. Before the game can be played the player is instructed to adjust brightness levels, play in a dark room and to wear headphones to optimise playing experience. Finally it is added that "Amnesia should not be played to win. Instead, focus on immersing your self in the game world and story" (Frictional Games 2010).

Of these instructions, wearing headphones stands out as a significant factor to become immersed in the auditory world of the game. By excluding external sound sources the player can focus on game sounds which should be of importance for the honours project.

The game itself plays out in a dark environment with the player instructed to hide or run rather than fight. This also plays into the hands of audio as the player has to sneak around whilst trying to listen for aural clues. Just being a darkened environment alone encourages the player to rely more on auditory information. This should also be a key design aspect to include as part of the honours project.

The music plays a crucial role in this game mainly to set the scene and put the player in a frame of mind. the music conjures up preconceptions relating to the horror film genre and by making these connections the player then has an understanding of the kind of setting they should expect. Tension, fear and the unknown are all phrases that come to mind when listening to the music of Amnesia. Similarly the honours project may benefit from the use of genre specific music as a scene setting element which will help the narrative stand out. 

A nice audio feature which helps with player attachment to the game character is breathing. The character can be heard breathing which works dynamically by being linked to player actions and game events such as being under threat. Something so simple as hearing the character breath (even though at times can repetitive) is very effective at conveying the mood of the character and results in the player behaving in a way which was envisioned by the developers. A strong player to character attachment was a personal highlight of this game where the breath effect helped bridge the gap. With the honours project having a similar first person approach then this idea or another mechanism which makes the player to character bond stronger will need to be devised.

One aspect of the games' audio which was distracting was due to extreme panning. Here certain sound sources pan from one ear to the other (on headphones) very abruptly depending on which direction the player faces. At points the sound could jump from one side to the other with a full 100% of the signal being perceived one only one side. This unnatural movement of sound is the games' biggest flaw and is an issue present on many other games. A solution to this problem and any others which result in acoustic inaccuracies will be devised in order for the honours project to be most effective.

It has to be said that the story and visual aspect of the game has a lot to do with the immersion factor. The big question is, can audio lead this kind of experience or will it always just be one part of the immersion process?  

KEY NOTES:

• Game directs you on how to play for immersion
• Use of headphones to block external distractions
• Dark environment to heighten aural engagement
• Genre specific music used to support narrative
• Important player to character bond mechanism
• Extreme panning leading to a break in immersion

Research - Book added to reading list (Game Sound, Karen Collins 2008)

After reading through some of the initial papers I found the following book referenced on several occasions. I have now added it to my reading list to better inform the papers where it is referenced.

Research - Analysis of "A Grounded Investigation of Game Immersion" (Brown & Cairns, 2004)

Summary and conclusions about "A Grounded Investigation of Game Immersion" (Brown & Cairns, 2004)

Brown & Cairns (2004) highlight that the term ‘immersion’ is used frequently to describe games throughout the gaming community but with little coherent explanation as to the general meaning of the term. Their study tries to define immersion within the context of games using ‘grounded theory’ (method of qualitative research developed by Strauss & Corbin (1998)) by analysing interviews with seven gamers about their experiences when playing. Much like Taylor (2002) their results define immersion as a process of stages of involvement with the game which “moves along the path of time and is controlled by barriers.” (Brown & Cairns. 2004, p.2), only this time three stages are suggested.

The three stages of immersion described by Brown & Cairns are ‘Engagement’, ‘Engrossment’ and ‘Total Immersion’. The barriers describe gateways to each of the stages and by opening these the player can move forward through the stages of immersion. For example the first stage is ‘Engagement’, this is where the player must first engage with the game, so a potential barrier might be that the player does not like the genre or style of the game, thus creating a barrier for further immersion to take place. As stated by Brown & Cairns “To lower the barriers to enter this level, the gamer needs to invest time, effort, and attention” (2004, p.2). This will be an important point to follow when selecting a pool of gamers for testing immersive audio qualities within this project. If the selected gamers’ had no interest in the genre or style of the game then trying to guide them through these layers of immersion would be difficult.

The next stage of immersion ‘Engrossment’ is described by one interviewee as

“A Zen-like state where your hands just seem to know what to do, and your mind just carries on with the story.” (Brown & Cairns. 2004, p.3).

Brown & Cairns seem to link this stage to the games’ construction and the players’ emotional connection, as well as respect for the design work put into it. Again there is a barrier to this stage of investing time and effort to become emotionally involved with the game but also design flaws such as poor visual/aural feedback or even unrealistic gameplay. These factors could all contribute to the feeling of disengagement and bring up the barriers against progressing to the final stage of immersion described by Brown & Cairns.

Brown & Cairns describe the last stage of immersion ‘Total Immersion’ as ‘Presence’, this is where the gamers’ felt completely detached from the real world around them and were fully focused on the game. The barriers to ‘Presence’ that are suggested lay with empathy and atmosphere. In this sense empathy is defined not as the players’ empathetic feelings towards game characters or situations but as the “growth of attachment” to the game itself (Brown & Cairns. 2004, p.3). Interestingly the majority of games described by the gamers’ as ‘Totally Immersive’ were of a First person shooter model. Perhaps due to a direct visual illusion of seeing through the game characters eyes gives them a clearer feeling of ‘Presence’. The visual and audio elements combined with plot make up the game atmosphere and striking the right balance between these sensory interactions seems to be the key in reaching ‘Total Immersion’. Brown & Cairns give an example of how important the gamers’ attention factors into the ‘Total Immersion’ stage by stating

“If gamers need to attend to sound, as well as sight more effort is needed to be placed into the game. The more attention and effort invested, the more immersed a gamer can feel.” (Brown & Cairns. 2004, p.3).

They also describe three elements of player attention which are visual, auditory and mental. The above quotation would suggest that the more of these attention aspects are pulling on the players’ senses the greater involved with the game the player will become.

Conclusion

Although Brown & Cairns mention little about the role audio plays in the immersive process specifically in their paper at lot can still be taken from it. Identifying immersion as a process which happens over time is one point worth further investigation which could help define a timescale for each stage. This would be useful for testing as well as design of the projects gaming level with questions in mind such as, ‘how long should the experience take to complete’ or ‘how long should the test last’. A testing time too short or similarly a level that doesn’t take long to complete may not give enough time to see a balanced result.

The most important point to take is the idea that immersion is linked to attention and can be manufactured into the design of a game. By using game design to force players’ into relying on their senses in order to fulfil the games’ objectives, the resulting affect is drawing more of the gamers’ attention.

References

Brown, E. and Cairns, P. (2004). A Grounded Investigation of Game Immersion. University College London Interaction Centre (UCLIC). Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Vienna, Austria. [online]. Available from: http://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/~pcairns/papers/Immersion.pdf [Accessed 1st November 2014]

Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. 1998. Basics of Qualitative Research. 2^nd ed. Sage Publications, Inc. [online]. Available from: http://stiba-malang.ac.id/uploadbank/pustaka/RM/BASIC%20OF%20QUALITATIVE%20RESEARCH.pdf [Accessed 1^st November 2014]

Taylor, L. 2002. VIDEO GAMES: PERSPECTIVE, POINT-OF-VIEW, AND IMMERSION. [online]. Available from: http://etd.fcla.edu/UF/UFE1000166/taylor_l.pdf [Accessed 25 October 2014]

Research - Defining the term immersion

Defining the term 'Immersion' in a gaming context

Some research into the definition of immersion is key to this project in allowing for a more direct approach of both research and practice.

Janet Murray (1997) describes immersion as;

“Immersion is a metaphorical term derived from the physical experience of being submerged in water. We seek the same feeling from a psychologically immersive experience that we do from a plunge in the ocean or swimming pool: the sensation of being surrounded by a completely other reality, as different as water is from air, that takes over all of our attention, our whole perceptual apparatus” (Murray, 1997, p. 98)

Dovey and Kennedy describe immersion in a similar fashion by adding that it is “the experience of losing a sense of embodiment in the present whilst connecting on a meditated environment” (Dovey & Kennedy, 2006, p. 146). It is worth noting that immersion can also be related to other forms of entertainment such as books, or film but the difference here is that these are static or linear as opposed to an interactive game. Brown & Cairns (2004) highlight that the term immersion or immersive is used frequently to describe games throughout the gaming community but add that the term is also used without a coherent explanation (Brown & Cairns. 2004, p.1). Other terms have also been used to describe the immersive state such as ‘Incorporation’ (Calleja, 2007) and ‘Presence’ (McMahan, 2003). Jennett et al (2008) also mention ‘Presence’ as well as other concepts such as ‘Flow’ and ‘Cognitive absorption’. However they argue that “immersion is clearly distinct from these established concepts and a better understanding of immersion would be crucial in understanding the relationship between people and videogames” (Jennett et al, 2008, p. 642).

It appears that the term 'immersion' is somewhat disputed however enough has been found to apply a broad definition. Further reading will try to establish the connection between audio and immersion.

References:
Brown, E. and Cairns, P. (2004). A Grounded Investigation of Game Immersion. Extended Abstracts of the 2004 Conference on Human Factors and Computing Systems, Vienna April 24-29 2004. New York: ACM. pp. 1297-1300. [online]. Available from: http://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/~pcairns/papers/Immersion.pdf [Accessed 1st November 2014]

Calleja, G. (2007). Revising Immersion: A Conceptual Model for the Analysis of Digital Game Involvement. Digital Games Research Association (DiGRA). Situated Play, Proceedings of DiGRA 2007 Conference. [online]. Available from: http://www.digra.org/wp-content/uploads/digital-library/07312.10496.pdf [Accessed 3rd November 2014]

Dovey, J. And Kennedy, H.W. (2006). Game Cultures: Computer games as new Media. Berkshire: Open University Press.

Jennett et al. (2008). Measuring and defining the experience of immersion in games. Int. J. Human-Computer Studies. 66(May): pp. 641-661.

McMahan, A. (2003). The Video Game Theory Reader. Chapter 3 - Immersion, Engagement, and Presence. New York: Toylor & Francis Books, Inc.

Taylor, L. 2002. VIDEO GAMES: PERSPECTIVE, POINT-OF-VIEW, AND IMMERSION. [online]. Available from: http://etd.fcla.edu/UF/UFE1000166/taylor_l.pdf [Accessed 25 October 2014]

Game audio immersion - Objectives, Tasks & Devilerables

This is a first draft of what the honours project aim, objectives, tasks & deliverables will look like. Next, will be to refine these and map them out over a timeline for the research proposal.

Game Level Concept - Game Review List

Games which have personally been found to be immersive from a sound design perspective have influenced the type of 
game scenario that will be aimed for. 

From past experience games that have really caught the attention from both an immersive and sound perspective have been of the survival horror genre. Games such as ‘Resident Evil series’, ‘Silent Hill series’, ‘Amnesia - The Dark Descent’ or more recently ‘The Last of Us’ have all been very impressive in these areas. Sound appears to be more effective in these types of games, perhaps this is due to their physically darkened visual style which forces the player to rely on aural information. This is a convenient consequence for this project and will help to direct the players’ attention to audio elements by reducing focus on visual information.

The games listed above will reviewed and analysed to try and gain an insight into what is going on from a design perspective in these games. What can be learned from some of the processes involved in these games to help construct an immersive audio experience in the honours project?